Builders of the Ukrainian "ziggurat": what we know about the mysterious Catacomb culture.

Among the peoples that inhabited the territory of modern Ukraine during the Bronze Age, the Catacomb Culture remains perhaps the most renowned. Thanks to the efforts of archaeologists, general awareness of this period is increasing.

The Catacomb Culture is primarily associated with nomads, although they also had permanent settlements. In fact, some of their monuments could have overshadowed the British Stonehenge under better circumstances.

But let's discuss everything in order.

Who are these people?

Evidence of the Catacomb Culture can be found across vast regions from Romania to the Ural Mountains. It existed approximately from 2500 to 1950 BC, which is around four thousand years ago.

The earlier Yamnaya Culture, at the height of its development, spread across huge territories, where it was influenced by neighboring peoples. This gradual transformation eventually led to many "post-Yamnaya" cultures becoming quite distinct from one another.

Genetically, the Catacomb Culture closely resembles the "Yamnaya," but recent discoveries have uncovered their connection to the populations of the Caucasus and Europe. As for modern Ukrainians, studies have shown that they are genetically closer to the Yamnaya people than to the Catacomb Culture. This presents a strong argument that the "catacomb dwellers" were likely not our ancestors.

If the earlier Yamnaya culture was characterized by brown eyes, chestnut hair, and an "intermediate" skin tone, the "catacomb dwellers" already exhibit markers associated with light skin and light (possibly even red) hair. The average height for men was between 165-175 centimeters, while for women it was 155-165 cm.

Interestingly, at the end of 2023, Poltava archaeologists managed to recreate the appearance of a shamaness from the Catacomb Culture, which can even be viewed in virtual reality.

The name of these people derives from their tradition of burying the deceased in deep pits with a characteristic side chamber where the body was placed. The entrance to the chamber was typically sealed with a wheel.

Nomads. Well, almost

The "Yamnaya" were the first European culture to transition to a nomadic lifestyle, so it is not surprising that for a long time, "catacomb dwellers" were also perceived as highly mobile livestock herders. It is worth noting that some studies suggest that the Yamnaya culture may have been the first in the world to use horses for riding. However, no evidence of such a practice has yet been found among the Catacomb Culture.

Nonetheless, horses were an integral part of these people's lives, as evidenced by the widespread finds of light two-wheeled "chariots." However, this cart was not a fully developed chariot, as its distinctive feature—a spoked wheel—had not yet been invented at that time. Yet, it is clear that work in this direction was already underway.

Massive four-wheeled carts were also still in use, but they were likely pulled by oxen.

This already creates an image of semi-wild tribes wandering back and forth in pursuit of herds of cattle, sheep, or horses. However, there is also evidence that at times they created full-fledged settlements and engaged in agriculture. For instance, remains of buildings with stone foundations were discovered near Matveevka (Mykolaiv region) and Martovoe (Kharkiv region).

Speaking of which, history enthusiasts are likely familiar with Baida Island (or Small Khortytsia) on the Dnieper River, where Dmytro Vyshnevetsky established a prototype of the Zaporizhian Sich. This island and its defensive potential were appreciated even by the "catacomb dwellers," who constructed a stone fortress with a moat on it! (For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that the first settlement there dates back to the times of the Sredny Stog culture, around 4500–3500 BC).

Unfortunately, due to the island's active use in more recent times, we may never know what the "catacomb dwellers'" fortress looked like. However, the mere fact of its existence suggests at least that their life was not peaceful. It also indicates that they were capable of constructing complex structures, much like the Molotchan Sanctuary.

We need to build a ziggurat!

The Molotchan Sanctuary is mainly associated with Slavic rituals, but it was built much earlier. Much earlier. By the time our ancestors arrived in these lands, it was already over two thousand years old!

We are talking about a mound 8 meters high and about 100 meters in diameter, located near the settlement of Vynogradne (Zaporizhzhia region). Excavations in this area were conducted in the early 1980s under the guidance of Doctor of Historical Sciences Serhiy Pustovalov. During the excavations, burials of people from the Yamnaya culture were discovered, indicating that even during the time of the "catacomb dwellers," the site had long been in use.

However, it was the representatives of the Catacomb Culture (or at least people living in the same period) who began to build something here that Pustovalov compares to the Sumerian ziggurat in Ur (Mesopotamia).

"The discovered sanctuary is a unique structure. In the Northern Black Sea region, there are barrows without burials that were possibly used as sanctuaries, but their construction differs sharply from the one described above. These are usually mounds with flat tops. The idea of a platform with complex ramps has a millennia-old history in the Middle East. Ziggurats in Ur and Babylon suggest the presence of a complex ramp, where the main road splits into two or three descents. The presence of stelae in the sanctuary between the northern entrances and the altar at the top recalls the rituals that existed among the Hittites.", — wrote Pustovalov.

Initially, the complex had an elevation resembling a star, from which 13 roads branched out in different directions. However, after many years of active use, it took on a more familiar mound-like appearance.

To better illustrate the antiquity of this complex, one can recall that the world-famous Stonehenge began construction around 3100 BC and was completed approximately in 1600 BC. The Molotchan Sanctuary was created between 2000-1800 BC. Thus, while Stonehenge began construction earlier, it was completed later. This means that the period of active use of both monuments roughly coincided. Isn't that impressive?

Unfortunately, in 2022, Vynogradne fell under Russian occupation, leaving the fate of this unique ancient sanctuary uncertain. It would not be a surprise if it turned out that the Russians destroyed it or dismantled it for building materials for a hut in some Syzran.

However, the author would prefer not to conclude on a pessimistic note, so let’s consider another "slippery" hypothesis.

What does ancient Greece have to do with it?

In recent years, there have been suggestions in archaeological circles that the Catacomb Culture is a precursor to the Mycenaean civilization—the predecessor of classical "ancient Greece."

One might think this is just ordinary conspiracy theory, but the similarity was pointed out by the renowned archaeologist and historian David Anthony in his book "The Horse, the Wheel, and Language." This work is considered one of the most authoritative in the field of Indo-European history.

The "catacomb dwellers" disappeared from the territory of Ukraine around 1950 BC, while the Mycenaean civilization emerged around 1800 BC. People in both societies practiced similar burial styles with side chambers and led a warlike lifestyle, placing great importance on weapons and chariots among the elite. Additionally, there are similarities in some household items, such as horse cheek pieces and spear designs.

Moreover, proponents of this theory also point out that the golden "mask of Agamemnon" (discovered in 1876 in Mycenae by Heinrich Schliemann) bears a striking resemblance to the clay masks of the "catacomb dwellers", which are periodically found in their burials. However, the "mask of Agamemnon" was made about 400 years later than the clay masks of the Catacomb Culture, which is a significant time gap.

Opponents of this hypothesis also note that the Mycenaeans possess only a very small percentage of genetic material from the eastern steppe peoples, and there is currently no clear evidence of their penetration into Greece.</