They transformed the world. The first nomads of Ukraine's steppes—facts and myths about the Yamnaya culture.

In historical matters, the further back we go, the more bizarre and strange theories emerge. For instance, one might occasionally hear that modern Ukrainians trace their lineage back to the Tripolians or that they descended from the first Aryans, as supposedly stated in that very "Veles Book".

To dispel such speculations, it would be beneficial to rewind time and see what transpired in those distant eras. While we have yet to invent a time machine, archaeologists can shed light on the mysteries and share what we know about the past of our land. Moreover, there is much to tell.

Who were these people?

Yamnaya culture (3300-2600 BC) was, at its peak, widespread across nearly all of Ukraine, reaching into Russia and Kazakhstan to the east, and into Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Poland, and Hungary to the west.

The descendants of this culture spread all the way from Germany to Mongolia and from Sweden to India.

They were named for their tradition of burying their deceased in pits covered by burial mounds. Since they had no written language, we cannot say how they referred to themselves.

During their lifetime, their representatives were relatively tall (averaging 175.5 centimeters) with robust physiques and elongated skulls.

There are many theories regarding the origins of the Yamnaya culture, but genetic studies suggest they were a result of the mixing of Eastern European hunter-gatherers (EHG) and Caucasian hunter-gatherers (CHG) from the early Bronze Age. Their ancestors are believed to be either the Khvalynsk culture (4900-3500 BC), found in Russia's Saratov region, or the Sredny Stog culture (4500-3500 BC), whose representatives lived in the Ukrainian steppe. It is also possible that the "Yamnics" are a blend of these cultures.

The first "Aryans"?

Early studies suggested that the representatives of the Yamnaya culture were somewhat fair-skinned and light-haired. However, an analysis by Harvard researchers in 2022 found that none of the samples had light skin or hair, nor blue eyes, indicating these traits likely developed much later. In other words, the average "Yamnik" had brown eyes, chestnut hair, and an "intermediate" skin tone.

Research suggests that the people of the Yamnaya culture spoke a proto-Indo-European language. However, the Indo-Aryans likely developed from later cultures that formed from the "fragments" of Yamnaya.

Thus, they were not Aryans in either the literal or figurative sense, even though they were essentially their precursors.

The first nomads of Europe?

One thing we can say for sure is that the "Yamnics" led a highly mobile lifestyle. This is evidenced by numerous finds of large carts and similar wheeled vehicles.

Wagons were even found in some burial sites. If we assume that in early religious practices, individuals were buried with what they might need in the afterlife, it can be inferred that wagons held exceptional significance in Yamnaya culture.

Although the earliest evidence of a nomadic lifestyle was found in the Levant (the Middle East), it is believed that the "Yamnics" were the pioneers of this lifestyle in Europe. At least, there is currently no solid evidence to assert otherwise.

It is quite likely that they spent their entire lives traversing the vast expanses of the Steppe, following their herds. However, in certain areas, ancient people built settlements and practiced agriculture near rivers.

The first riders?

Continuing on the topic of carts, it is worth noting that in the Steppe, they were indeed pulled by oxen. Interestingly, the practice of using these animals for long-distance travel persisted in modern Ukraine even thousands of years later (remember the chumaks?).

However! In 2023, a study published in Science claimed that some skeletons from the Yamnaya culture found in Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary displayed distinctive bone changes characteristic of riders. The remains were dated to around 3021–2501 BC, which makes them the earliest horse riders in human history.

However, in December 2024, a new study was released that, while not disproving this hypothesis, emphasizes that we should not rush to conclusions.

More conservative modern theories of horse domestication suggest it occurred around 2200–2100 BC between the Volga and Don rivers. By that time, the Yamnaya culture had already "split" into many others.

It is worth mentioning that there is evidence of attempts to domesticate horses a millennium earlier in northern Kazakhstan by the Botai culture, although there is currently no clear evidence that they succeeded. They may have simply been highly specialized hunters of these hoofed animals.

The demise of the Tripolians?

According to one theory proposed by archaeologist Marija Gimbutas, the expansion of the Yamnaya culture led to the demise of Tripolian communities.

The Yamnaya culture had well-developed metallurgy and military organization, while archaeologists find almost no artifacts indicating the Tripolians' martial nature.

Notably, later Tripolian settlements were constructed such that the walls of houses on the outskirts connected with each other, forming a semblance of fortification. This means that while the inhabitants preferred to live in peace, they could not ignore the warlike eastern neighbors.

Whether the invasion of the Yamnaya people caused the downfall of the Tripolians remains unknown. However, some studies indicate that constant raids made farming more dangerous beyond 3 kilometers from the settlement.

Since Tripolian cities could number tens of thousands of people, they heavily relied on their crops. It becomes clear without additional explanations that if such a large settlement is left without food, its viability is highly questionable.

However, other studies suggest that the Tripolians may have been doomed by internal socio-cultural changes or ecological shifts, such as droughts and crop failures, with the Yamnaya culture being entirely unrelated.

Regardless, around 2750 BC, the Tripolian culture ceased to exist both in Ukraine and Romania. Finds related to the Tripolians after this period indicate that people were forced to leave their homes for some reason and seek refuge in foreign lands. Interestingly, their dispersal occurred in all directions except eastward.

Proto-Ukrainians?

Online, one can encounter speculations about some "prehistoric Rus," which allegedly dug the Black Sea, piled up the Caucasus Mountains, and has existed for 21,000 years. Usually, the argument is made that ancient people have genomes similar to modern Ukrainians.

While such publications do not always specify which cultures are being referred to, the "Yamnics" can serve as a good example to put an end to these speculations.

Yes, they likely appeared in Ukraine and definitely lived here. Yes, modern Ukrainians share 42.8% genomic similarity with them. But can we consider ourselves their direct descendants?

This question can be answered as follows: the genome of modern Finns has about 50.4% similarity with the genome of the Yamnaya culture. Should we therefore consider Finns as one people with Ukrainians?

To avoid delving into the depths of domestic pseudo-history and conspiracy theories, we can conclude this article with the words of Ukrainian publicist and socio-political figure Viktor Tregubov: "To take pride in an imaginary past is the concern of peoples with a very poor real present."